Engineering Justice
Jon Leydens and Juan Lucena (2018). Engineering justice: Transforming engineering education and practice. IEEE Press.
xiii It is a work that should have deep impacts on engineering education, engineering communication, and engineering ethics professionals alike
xiv at the core of engineering, science, and technical work is problem solving and discovery. These tasks require, at all levels, talented and agile communication practices
xvi engineers and engineering have culture that can be studied and, if necessary, transformed for the wellbeing of communities, social justice, and sustainability
xvii What does engineering have to do with justice? … engineering decisions both impact and are impacted by justice considerations … To truly answer the question of what engineering has to do with justice, we must also be willing to examine closely and carefully what engineering has to do with injustice
xviii The central problem lies in engineers’ tendency to compartmentalize, to separate not only the technical and social in a false dichotomy, but also the professional and the personal, what it means to act as an engineer versus as a citizen
xix A central argument of this book is that engineering education is presently mismatched with what is needed in engineering practice, and does not prepare engineers to meet the responsibilities of the profession
xix the very definition of good engineering is taking into account social justice
xx engineering for social justice (E4SJ)
xx epistemic humility – recognition that our way of knowing is not the only way of knowing
xx the first three considerations … for engineering for social justice are listening contextually to develop trust and empathy; identifying structural conditions … and acknowledging political agency and mobilizing power
xxi the final three criteria that guide design selection and evaluation: increasing opportunities and resources; reducing imposed risks and harms; and enhancing human capabilities … in stark contrast to the … goals of efficiency or profit
xxi engineering educators can increase the appeal, relevance, and interest of engineering curricula to prospective students from many different backgrounds by lending new visibility to salient sociotechnical problems of our time
xxiii students learn to ask who benefits and who does not … students also come to realize that engineers and engineering can be positive agents and a liberating force for social justice … Engineering, the students realize, is never neutral because it does not exist in a social vacuum
xxiv-xxv one of the most important – yet most neglected in the curriculum – engineering skills: understanding and applying how sociotechnical interplays not only matter but also represent the way the world actually works
xxv The E4SJ criteria provide a relatively efficient yet effective way to introduce students to the notion that engineering is sociotechnical
xxv engineering as it should be: responsive to the needs and problems of the underserved
1 engineering has the power to transform the world
3 According to the World Bank, in 2012, 2.1 billion people – 35% of the human population – lived on less than US$ 3.10 a day, a common poverty threshold … in 1990, 66% of the population lived on less than that amount
4 the real intellectual challenges in engineering involve people and technical issues simultaneously
4 disconnect between engineers in practice and engineers in academe … Engineering problems found in school … are [generally] organized to develop facility in solving ‘well-structured problems’ [as opposed to ill-structured ones found in the workplace]
5 where in the curriculum do we see sociotechnical interplays and opportunities for students to understand, use, and reflect on sociotechnical thinking?
7 to facilitate deeper understandings of engineers’ power and broader associated responsibilities, such discussions need to be integrated at multiple junctures throughout the engineering curriculum, especially in those places deemed “purely technical.”
8 In serious discussions of the entire engineering curriculum, two key concepts merit explanation: microethics and macroethics … Joe Herkert … ‘Microethics’ considers individuals and internal relations of the engineering profession; ‘macroethics’ applies to the collective social responsibility of the profession and to societal decisions about technology … we also add an additional dimension to Herkert’s challenge … we also incorporate the bridge level in between, the meso level: engineers’ responsibility to groups … The crucial undercurrent running through all three – micro, meso, and macro – levels … responsibility that emerges … we are part of a profession with significant power and knowledge over others, especially vulnerable groups
9 the three most common pillars … of sustainability are People, Planet, and Profit, or … Ecology, Economy, and Equity … 3Ps or 3Es are referred to as the triple bottom line
10 how might the least-emphasized, and in most cases the invisible dimension – people/equity – find a more salient position in undergraduate engineering education?
10 engineering education today is not significantly more diverse in terms of gender, ethnicity, and other demographics than a generation ago … research indicates that diverse groups more effectively solve complex, open-ended problems and boost productivity
13 research indicates that most students have a moderate to strong desire to see technical causes render clear the interplays between the social and the technical
13 theoretical frameworks … constructivist and sociocultural learning theories … learning via inquiry in … authentic … environments, and … problem-based learning … open-ended questions
14 distributive justice … transformative justice
15, 73, 244 We define E4SJ as engineering practices that strive to enhance human capabilities (ends) through an equitable distribution of opportunities and resources while reducing imposed risks and harms (means) among agentic citizens of a specific community or communities
15-16 Engineers Without Borders (EWB) … Engineers for a Sustainable World, Engineering World Health, Bridges to Prosperity (B2P) … Engineering for Change … Engineers Against Poverty … retention
17 Persistence … those who leave engineering majors are disproportionately from groups underrepresented in engineering
17 women and under-represented groups find traditional engineering void of social relevance … engage students in team exercises, in team design courses, and … in courses that connect engineering design and solutions to real-world problems so that the social relevance of engineering is apparent appear to be successful in retaining students
19 low-income students … resourcefulness, ingenuity, and innovation
20 empathy
20 problem solvers … problem definers … engineers necessarily negotiate and re-negotiate the definitions of technological problems both among themselves and with non-engineers
21, 73, 119, 170, 198, 244 E4SJ criteria …:
(1) Listening contextually [p 21-23]
(2) Identifying structural conditions [p 23]
(3) Acknowledging political agency / mobilizing power [p 24-26]
(4) Increasing opportunities and resources [p 26-27]
(5) Reducing imposed risks and harms [p 27-28]
(6) Enhancing human capabilities [p 28-30]
27 every technology, as simple as an artifact or as complex as a system, carries risks and harms
28-29, 87, 126 [Martha] Nussbaum has defined 10 human capabilities that serve “as a benchmark for a minimally decent human life”:
1. Life (of a normal length)
2. Bodily health
3. Bodily integrity (freedom from assault and the ability to move about freely, etc.)
4. Senses, imagination, and thought (which are critical to being fully human)
5. Emotions (love, grief, longing, gratitude, and more)
6. Practical reason (for critical thinking, freedom of conscience, etc.)
7. Affiliation (including protecting institutions that advance compassion and ensuring the social preconditions for self-respect and non-humiliation regardless of sex, ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc.)
8. Other species (how we manifest respect for plants, animals, and nature in general)
9. Play (recreation, laughter)
10. Control over one’s political and material environment.
30 Engineering practice always takes place in social contexts … engineering is a sociotechnical profession
31 E4SJ … a foundation of three guidelines: cradle-to-grave analysis, transcending temporal delimitations, and culling multiple perspectives
32 TABLE 1 E4SJ Criteria … Critical Reflection [expanded from p 21]
34 “location, knowledge, and desire” … to overcome mistrust and open community-engineer lines of communication
45 making social justice (SJ) concepts visible in engineering education … resistance to making SJ visible
46 Increasingly common today are more subtle forms of discrimination and oppression, along with a growing awareness of them
46 normalizing goes unmarked, and deviations from the cultural norm are often marked
47 Not only are dominant groups’ values considered culturally normal, they are also generally considered superior
47 Unconscious biases are commonplace in STEM workplaces … Male and female scientists ranked male applicants higher than female in terms of competence and “hirability” even though these applicants had identical credentials
48 personalization
48 acknowledging privilege calls a meritocratic system into question
49 According to Cech, US engineering cultures are bolstered and sustained by three ideological pillars: technical-social dualism, depoliticization, and meritocracy
50 Engineering problem solving (EPS) … is never exclusively technical but sociotechnical work
51 students were asked how engineering students would learn to recognize the SJ dimensions … which … were necessary to function effectively in actual engineering practice … That question caused many interviewees to experience moments of cognitive dissonance
51 a combination of social work and technical work makes the best engineers … a social course taught me more about what being an engineer is really about than my technical courses
55 meritocracy … “individual talent, training, and motivation” … inheritance … connections … luck … discrimination … marriage … intergenerational poverty
57 The D80 efforts (Design for the other 80%)
58 pre-formed, decontextualized problems can, via repetition, cause engineering students to see problems as purely technical and as having no (important) social dimensions
59 Engineering practice today is characterized by a near total absence of that physical, hands-on labor that is a central attribute to craft work … if our curricula do not have any maker (or similar) spaces, we risk depriving students of the ability to at least imagine usability issues that are a crucial step toward human-centered design
60 An overreliance on the scientific method as the only way of knowing or as an exclusive method of inquiry becomes problematic … Riley underscores the risks associated with not questioning given information … might prevent them from … the precautionary principle
60 design is … a negotiation among values and interests held by the different stakeholders involved in the design process
61 The helping spirit and strong work ethic of engineers are important traits for engaging in social justice work
62 EWB [Engineers Without Borders] … American Society for Engineering Education’s Community Engagement … Engineering World Health, Engineering for Change, Engineering for a Sustainable World … Engineers Against Poverty
62 integrating SJ in the engineering classroom will not only enhance student satisfaction, but their learning as well
68 ambiguity, necessary collaboration, sociotechnical complexity, and persuasion needed to be an expert engineer
68 the real intellectual challenges in engineering involve people and technical issues simultaneously … satisfying
69 book Design for the Other 90%
69 Engineering design education had to make its comeback after its near-death experience following the launch of Russian satellite Sputnik in 1957
70 A good engineer … must strike a balance between knowing and doing
71 design criteria are often negotiated among diverse stakeholders in different positions of power and privilege
71 a definition of engineering – as design under constraints
71 design continues to be undervalued in the US engineering education knowledge hierarchy
71 Waste for Life
72 problem solving always includes problem definition – which itself involves negotiations between engineering and non-engineering perspectives
74 to design well, listening is essential
75 the quality of listening is related to the quality of trust
75 First, to build trust … second phase … understand community desires and existing forms of knowledge … third … mapped political agency and ways to mobilize power … fourth … collaboratively planning
76 problem definition and solution (PDS)
community’s location, knowledge, and desires (LKD)
78 listening as an explicit course objective developed by active listening instruction and practice
78 Trust matters … not just from observations but by building relationships … fully appreciate what tutoring a student has to do with engineering design
79 feelings of guilt are also unproductive if they persist and do not translate into action … three-column log: the first column … observed and heard … the second column … reflections … the third column list practical ideas
80 technology design provides opportunities and resources for some, and contributes to increased risks and harms, usually for others
80 blind spots … engineering-to-help mindset
81 narratives of corruption, organized crime, and conflicts of interest … Engineers need to be able to navigate such ambiguity
81 map power relations to recognize diverse forms of power
82 implicit or unconscious bias … many case studies … Caroline Baillie [“Synthesis Lectures on Engineers, Technology and Society,” Morgan & Claypool Publishers, 2014] … the costs of ignoring political agency and power issues in design are too costly – financially, socially, and otherwise. Though acknowledging such issues opens new layers of complexity, it also more closely resembles actual engineering practice
84 “How does our design increase opportunities and resources for those who will use and be affected by that design?”
86 Nussbaum (a philosopher) and Sen (an economist) have argued that development should be for the enhancement of human capabilities
87 effective technology is positioned as that which is explicitly, intentionally designed to promote human capabilities
89 the E4SJ criteria should at every available juncture promote the community’s ability to achieve self-determination
89 Kolb’s research suggest that the learning cycle occurs when lived experiences lead to concepts that in turn guide students in future learning experiences. That cycle, according to Jacoby, becomes operationalized via recurring opportunities and challenges to engage in and reflect on new experiences
90 design-specific rubric based on the E4SJ criteria (see Appendix 2.A) [p 98-99]
91 The authors found students more receptive to engage design for social justice criteria when they had a quantifiable rubric as a resource and tool
92 promote engaged student learning of engineering as well as to advance the common good
92 Herkert has challenged scholars and practitioners in engineering ethics to move from microethics to macroethics
93 doing the right thing, while not having to rely on the government to tell them what to do
94 Not only can good engineering and social justice exist simultaneously, but it can be argued that the very definition of good engineering is taking into account social justice
94 48% of its students attended Michigan Tech specifically to be involved in the D80 program [p 57]
94-95 integrating SJ in engineering education might be a vehicle to attract one of the most ignored and invisible underrepresented demographic groups: low-income students
96 students find it empowering to know that they can integrate SJ into the design and development of their projects and become agents for positive social change
98-99 APPENDIX 2.A ENGINEERING FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE SELF-ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST
108 Within engineering education contexts, interdisciplinary collaborations are becoming more common in intro courses, design courses, and Humanities and Social Sciences (HSS). Even the basic math and science courses have become sites of interdisciplinary pedagogical interventions. But for the most part, the ES [engineering sciences] remain closed to these interdisciplinary collaborations and integrations
109 the narrow, context-free manner in which EPS [engineering problem solving] is taught is the root of the overriding disjuncture between ES and SJ applications
110 the ES constitute a kind of curricular sacred cow
111 many educators worry that students are not reading textbooks
111 Strong problem analysis and solving skills are crucial for engineers, but … the current set of approaches commonly used to teach such skills are far too narrow
112 superficial learning does not help students readily transfer their learning to new contexts nor retain learning … Felder and Brent cite robust pedagogical research showing the diminishing returns associated with a lecture-only approach
113 Research indicates considerable learning gains when faculty integrate collaborative learning, which involves students working interdependently and interactively to accomplish a common hands-on goal for which they are mutually accountable … “active learning” involves students engaging in activities that closely resemble what they will be tested on and need to use in real-world contexts
113 liberative pedagogies … “engage students where they are, starting from what students already know from their life experience, and connecting with the things they find relevant”. LIberative pedagogy is human-centered pedagogy, so it considers students’ extrinsic, and more importantly, intrinsic motivation for learning
115 In engineering practice, problem solving generally involves a client and a social context … By contrast, in engineering education … students … did not firmly grasp … real-world applications
117 engineers necessarily negotiate and renegotiate the definitions of technological problems both among themselves and with non-engineers … redefine engineering work in terms of both problem solving and problem definition
122 water distribution can be an instrument of power over communities
125 lesson learned … concrete, contextualized examples work better than hypothetical, decontextualized ones
129 instead of maintaining the illusion that students will comprehend and remember massive amounts of technical content covered quickly and in the abstract, how might their learning be enriched by engaging the content in a context that showcases some real-world applications and utility
129 Students reported confusion about grading
130 Product cradle-to-grave analyses
130 cremation versus burial
130 does … consuming local, conventional apples outweighs the benefits of consuming organic apples from afar?
130-131 we are adept at churning out engineers who dismiss what cannot be measured or cannot be easily measured. Yet … sometimes the non-measurable or difficult to measure can be crucial to project success
131 underscore the importance of democratic, inclusive, and participatory problem definition and solution processes
131 part of what makes an engineering career so challenging and rewarding – diving into the complex sociotechnical interplays and learning how to resolve them effectively under time constraints
132 by integrating open-ended problems into ES courses, we can better represent the rich variety of intriguing sociotechnical problems the next generation of engineers will need to confront
133 accreditors need – and our students deserve – to see evidence of student learning
133 At least at first, and in some cases for our entire careers, we teach as we were taught
134 One way to counteract faculty resistance and turn it into an opportunity for students and faculty committed to SJ, and ultimately for under privileged users of engineering, is to build strategic alliances
135 we highly recommend a gradual integration approach
135 a few opportunities for students rewriting problems to recontextualize them and unveil their inherent SJ dimensions
138 engineers. We are trained to be elitists
138-139 interventions in the ES [engineering sciences] … although met with resistance, are likely to have a more lasting effect than those done at the margins of the curriculum, as students will come to accept them as part of what engineering is
139 By integrating SJ into ES courses, faculty might find new ways to enhance their teaching and scholarship opportunities … insight into how people learn in engineering education – via active, hands-on problem solving, via contextualized problems, via problems that matter … opportunities to engage students in solving complex problems that matter … “To develop mastery, students must acquire component skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned”. We recommend instructors look at Felder and Brent’s discussion of inductive teaching methods
140 these integrations can lead to augmented faculty and student engagement … ES faculty can become champions for recruitment and retention
140 low income students “choose to study engineering because it would allow them ‘to contribute to the wellbeing of their communities and of society as a whole.’” A summary of research suggests that using engineering examples drawn from our everyday lived experiences is effective in engineering education because such examples are “relevant and familiar to students,” “highlight simple and complex ways that engineers help society,” “increase student engagement and retention” and are “effective among all groups of students”
142 I set aside 1 in 4 lectures to speak to how signals and systems related to human values and social justice
143 my greatest, albeit subtle, resistance was from within
143 I am inviting students to explore this space together with me rather than professing expertise in this integration
143-144 I am asking students to perform four iterations of rewriting conceptual textbook problems in a way that demonstrates an example of a real system
145 Challenges to the status quo do not succeed easily. Yet they are essential for progress
156 Science and Technology Studies (STS)
162-163 the US National Academy of Engineering (NAE) … 2000 … technological literacy can be considered a social-justice issue
170 engineers are obligated to serve the public interest
171 Tim Wise’s video on White Privilege
172 one listens and views very differently a person that one tries to help with a hand-out than a person who is systematically oppressed by structural conditions
172 evidence exists of historical, systemic, and/or systemic discrimination against female, African American, LGBT, and low-income students in engineering programs
179 community partners can be exploited by unmotivated or ill-prepared students
181 Since the people most likely to access the Internet primarily or solely through mobile devices include racial and ethnic minorities, people living in low-income households, and people with lower levels of education, websites need to be designed for accessibility and clarity for mobile devices
184-186 APPENDIX 4.A PRIVILEGE WALK QUESTIONS
202 (a) learning from failure, (b) learning how social and technical dimensions can be connected or inseparable, and (c) learning to make the shift from social or technical thinking to sociotechnical thinking
203 Do not put the onus for making SJ visible entirely on one course
204 Invite students to begin identifying the social structural conditions that undergird the rope-pulley problem with prompts: How has this problem come about in the first place?
204 we challenge students to redefine and rewrite problems to render SJ visible … “What is the engineering problem for? Who is being served? Who is being left out?”
206 We have organized invited lectures with engineers who speak to the ways in which engineering practice always exists at the nexus of the social and the technical, including in some explicit and visible ways that integrate E4SJ criteria
208 channeling interested, highly talented, underrepresented students into engineering increases representation but also diversity of thought and ideas. Research indicates that multi-perspective organizations and teams outperform more homogeneous ones
208
- Companies in the top quartile for racial and ethnic diversity are 35% more likely to have financial returns above their respective national industry medians.
- Companies in the top quartile for gender diversity are 15% more likely to have financial returns above their respective national industry medians.
213 engineering students are socialized to be passive, uncritical thinkers … engineers are often trained to think analytically rather than also educated to think critically
214 “questioning the status quo” is beginning to be accepted as a way to increase innovation
215 problem-based learning (PBL) … open-ended, ill-structured, authentic (real-world) problem and work in teams … increases in student motivation for learning … positive effects on student retention and on remembering and understanding concepts
215-216 Cech’s study shows that students’ beliefs in public welfare issues … declined over the course of their engineering education
217 Charles Vest … the general public perceives that engineers … create economic growth, strengthen national security, and make strong leaders. However, they also believe that … engineers do less to save lives, are more insensitive to social concerns, and do not care as much about their communities
219 The E4SJ criteria introduce ambiguity, the very component some young engineering students wish to avoid
220 Despite having a strong GPA … she was thinking of transferring out of engineering
220 IDEO’s Five Whys activity
221 Perry’s intellectual/ethical development model … In the early stages … students see knowledge as right or wrong … are often passive … second series of stages … relativist view … Absolutes are seen as exceptions … final stages … knowledge is subject to examination
222 the seven-stage Kitchener and King model
222 Vygotsky … the zone of proximal development
225 identity-shaping factors
226 students who enter the work world … find that the problems they are solving are more complex and ambiguous than the problems they solved in school
228-237 APPENDIX 5.A ASSIGNMENT AND EXAMPLES OF PROBLEM REWRITES
236 technologies have unintended political or social effects on society
244 engineering education remains “one of the most traditional and resistant-to-change areas of higher education”
245 As faculty or practicing engineers, we need to engage in healthy self-critiques of our motives, which can be both a potential barrier and opportunity
246 continually ask ourselves and multiple stakeholders who benefits and who suffers (economically, environmentally, and socially) from any change, policy, or initiative
250 It is vital to engage other stakeholders … Do not do it alone
250 Recent research suggests that employers value hiring engineers with experience in community development
251 communication is often listed as the most important skill for engineering graduates
252 During our … career fair … we allow students to miss … class … as long as they bring a memo to the attention of potential employers … and get it signed
253-255 FUTURE E4SJ RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
255 In spite of … diversity efforts in engineering education, the representation of most underrepresented groups have increased only slightly, flattened, or even decreased. Some have argued that we should not expect to see any further increases until we actually change the curriculum by making it more relevant to what people care about … women … motivated by compassion
